Unit 18 Babies Development

E1-Summarise the factors which may influence the health and -development of babies in the first year of their lives There are many factors that affect health and development such as environmental factors, for example, a lack of space in the garden or outside play area will limit their gross motor and fine motor skills. â€Å"Generally, people with a high level of earnings enjoy a better lifestyle, with better housing, better food, warm clothes and own transport. † Meggit 2001 page 9 Genetics are also a major factor which may influence the health and development of the baby as some illnesses are inherited through genes.For example babies with Down's syndrome suffer due to a chromosomal abnormality which lead to problems such as heart defects and chest infections. Illness's in general can cause detrimental damage to a babies development, for example a baby may have asthma which is long term and is potentially life threatening in circumstances other illness's like meningitis can lead to many extreme conditions. The babies weight and height may be below average if they have not been developing correctly due to illness.Antenatal factors are also important to the baby such as certain foods like Camembert cheese can severely harm the baby, other illnesses like rubella can be detrimental to the unborn child’s health in the first 12-16 weeks as it can cause a miscarriage, still birth and defects such as brain damage, hearing loss and cataracts. Narcotics and alcohol can damage the child’s development during pregnancy, When the baby is being delivered, there may be complications which can affect the baby's health such as lack of oxygen, birth asphyxia, can be caused by the umbilical cord becoming entangled.Asphyxia can cause the baby permanent brain damage. E2-Describe how indoor and outdoor environments can be made safe, reassuring and stimulating By keeping to the adult to child ratio (1:3) and constantly supervising them, both indoor and outdoor e nvironments can be safe for babies. Sudden Infant Death Syndrome is something that practitioners must be aware of when babies are sleeping and should check on the babies every 5 minutes while under supervision. To reduce SIDS babies should be placed at the bottom of the cot with a maximum of two blankets. Risk assessments should also be made for both inside and outside play. â€Å"It is important that the environment children are playing in is regularly checked, before and during activities. † Tassoni et al 2007 page 193 Practitioners must make sure they follow the correct policies and procedures and make sure all gates are locked to keep the children safe from possible threats. The indoor environment can be reassuring by having a key person in which the baby will form a bond with.The key person can ensure that the baby will have a routine that tailors for the individual needs by working with the parents. The baby can also be reassured with a comforter, a much loved object fr om home, being brought into the setting to help them feel more ‘at home' and settled. The environments can be made stimulating by having a range of activities to promote different areas of development, for example, a treasure basket which will contain different natural items inside to promote the use of senses.Visual displays and posters can be put low down so that babies can look and investigate them. Whilst outside the practitioner can take the babies out on walks to see nature or just a stroll around the town, in my current setting we take the babies on walks as our environment is quite colourful. A trip to the park is also good as it provides opportunities for those who walk early to be able to run and explore. E3-Describe the expected stage of development of babies at 7 months and how they can be expected to develop in the next 2 months of life.I have chosen 7 months as this is a busy time in development for babies, for example this is when a baby may be able to sit unaid ed for a short period of time whereas at 9 months the baby could sit unsupported for 10 minutes as their gross motor skills has developed more which has improve their balance. At 7 months the baby will have recently mastered how to swap objects in their hands â€Å"can move a toy from one hand to another. † Tassoni. P 2007 page40. whereas at 9 months the baby will bee attempting to use the pincer grip. as their fine motor skills have progressed as the child â€Å"can deliberately release objects by dropping them. Tassoni wt al 2007 page41. At 7 months babies pay attention to objects within their visual field, this progresses at 9 months to watching an object fall, for example building blocks, this is known as object permanence and is a result of their intellectual development. Language development is also improved drastically within this range: from babbling in tune at 7 months to repetition and imitation at 9 months. â€Å"babbles and starts to understand words such as â⠂¬Ëœbye-bye' and ‘no'. † Tassoni et al page 570. E4 -Explain how 2 different play activities/experiences can support the overall development of the baby described in E3.An activity which supports overall development of a 7 month old is musical instruments is the use of musical instruments, for example a drum, xylophone, rattle or bells. the babies sensory skills as a whole will be used and further developed from physically shaking the rattle, hearing the sound and seeing the colours of the instrument. The fine motor skills will also develop in different ways depending on the instrument, for example beating the drum or shaking the rattle, alongside developing concentration and hand-eye co-ordination.Musical instruments can also be used to extend and bring out the babies language as they may babble along with the music or repeat certain words. This type of activity can help with emotional development as a child could feel frustrated or agitated and being able to just make sounds with instruments can calm them down as they beat in tune. â€Å"Music is the transition of sharing ones emotions of any age to any person. † Loosely translated from Japanese from an interview of One OK Rock's lead singer Morita Takahiro . This also aids their social development as they play along and bond with the practitioner or parent. Music is an easy way for parents to relate to their children. When an infant hears you sing to them, you are connecting with them, and they are connecting to you. † http://www. halilit. co. uko. uk/hal_playsound. html Playing with building blocks is another fun activity that supports babies development. Building blocks helps the 7 month old start the process of learning the pincer grip by developing its fine motor skills by picking the blocks up also aiding the gross motor skills by moving around their arms gradually getting quicker.The baby will also start to develop the skills and strength to sit unaided for longer gaining bett er balance while playing. other benefit from this activity is better hand-eye co-ordination with carefully placing the blocks on top of each other and colour recognition. The baby may babble while playing with the adult in which furthering their language skills. E5- Describe the role of the practitioner in meeting the particular needs of babies in a group care setting. The practitioners role in meeting particular needs is demonstrated and performed in different ways, for example welcoming the parents and the baby to the setting.The practitioner needs to build trust with the parents and in turn will make the baby feel more at ease seeing their parents engage with the practitioner. The practitioner will plan the daily routine to cater for individual needs of all the babies such as likes and dislikes or any special requirements for the babies such as dietary needs. â€Å"In people with coeliac disease this immune reaction is triggered by gluten†¦ † www. coeliac. org. uk/coe liac-disease The care routine will cater to the babies, physical, intellectual, social and emotional development therefore before planning the practitioner needs to assess each babies individual needs.It is also important for the key worker to give one to one attention to the baby, as they will form a bond which will make the baby feel secure. The practitioner must also keep accurate records whilst there is a high level of supervision. They must also provide a safe stimulating environment by selecting suitable resources. E6 – Show how the child protection policies and procedures in the setting protect and safeguard the babies. There are many policies and procedures that protect and safeguard babies, for example can help identify any area's the baby needs help with.These observations must also be kept secure on a password protected computer or in a locked cupboard due to the Data Protection Act 1998. Keeping these records secure is a policy that is not only backed by legislati on but is important to safeguard babies as these records have personal information on the baby and its family. This would also tie in to the settings confidentiality policy as only the practitioners involved and parents have the right to access these files. † This act is concerned with the protection of personal information. † Tassoni et al page 224 The Every Child Matters nitiative brought from the Children Act 2004 has brought in the need of a delegated Safeguarding officer which any signs of abuse on a baby would be reported to as the baby itself cannot talk nor know what is happening to them. This policy is put in place to elect the member of staff mediately to prevent or stop child abuse from taking place. Their would be a policy in place to recruit staff safely so the parents, other members of staff and babies are not harmed and feel safe. † When they first join a setting they should undergo a CRB check.It is important that all staff read the child protection policies and procedures of the setting. † Tassoni et al 2007 page 128 â€Å"adult to child ratio in rooms, the qualification levels of staff. † Tassoni. et al 2007 page 117 There would also be a policy in place of which the staff are at the correct staff to baby ration of 1:3 to ensure the babies are thoroughly looked after and to be kept safe from accidents. E7 & D1- Explain the importance of well-planned care routines and the key worker system & Consider how care routines can enhance the overall development of babies from birth to 12 monthsBabies need well planned care routines to meet their individual needs, it is important as it promotes security and stability for the baby. An example of this is a well planned feeding routine that caters to all the babies needs that will make sure they get the right type and amount of milk throughout the day and keeping with the routine from home. This routine can help the child develop in multiple ways, such as their fine motor sk ills when gripping the bottle or simply sitting in a high chair developing their posture.This will also stimulate the muscles in the mouth and around the jaw which helps with the transition to solids and also aids speech, emotionally this helps with independence and will give the baby the confidence to hold the bottle themselves to feed. The adult will be able to talk to the baby whilst sitting in front of the high chair aiding the child’s social skills. once the transition to solids take place the child may improve their senses as they are able to touch, see, taste and smell the food, aiding this is the cold spaghetti activity. The babies bathing routine, if the setting requires this, should be also planned efficiently.It is important as it requires one to one time with the adult, this helps the baby feel secure. Bathing will also help the baby emotionally as it is a good experience in which the baby can relax in the warm water and calm down alongside this adding toys into t he bath adds both fine motor and gross motor development as the baby tries to grasp the slippery toy whilst kicking their legs with joy. Social development will also improve as the adult would sing and talk to the baby, asking questions to stimulate the babies intellectual development, these questions could benefit the sensory skills such as asking the baby to â€Å"touch the red fish†.Nappy changing is another routine which must be well planned. The baby's physical development will increase as they are able to kick their legs. This will also help prevent nappy rash as they are not wearing a nappy. Intellectually they will develop as they are learning opportunities, for example when the adult asks them questions. There will be opportunities to express their emotions which will help their emotional development. This also allows them to be aware of their care routine. Socially they will develop as they have a one on one with their key person.The key person can sing to the baby which will help language development. The key person works closely with a baby to build an attachment and a close relationship with their parents. They have many responsibilities, for instance settling the baby in the setting and observing and assessing their development. Also â€Å"helping to ensure that the care of the child meets with the parents' wishes. † Tassoni. et al 2007 page 219 This can benefit the babies in early years settings as the baby will be able to feel safe and secure. This means that they may be able to have a stable development.The key person has partnership with parents, which means that the parents can trust and respect them, which will ensure the care routine is planned effectively. They can also find out the individual needs of the baby, and meet the parent's needs. C1 -Discuss the importance of an environment that is safe, reassuring and stimulating It is important for the environment to be safe as it is a government and legal requirement. This is b ecause the Childcare Act 2006 affects the â€Å"adult to child ratio in rooms, the qualification levels of staff. † Tassoni. t al 2007 page 117 These are embedded in the Early Years Foundation Stage Curriculum. A safe environment is also necessary to prevent babies from having accidents and coming into harm. The parents will feel reassured if they feel their baby is in a safe environment which in turn the baby will continue attending the setting. It will also help the baby's development, as they will have the opportunities to learn. If not the baby may not develop skills such as fine and gross. A reassuring environment will make the baby feel secure and settled and as a result the babies self-esteem, self-worth and confidence will grow.The babies social and emotional health will develop higher and will reassure the parents. The child will form a great attachment with the key person which will help plan around the babies for activities so that their individual needs will have been met. Having a stimulating environment is important as the baby will be able to develop a variety of skills. They will be able to increase their sensory development by having activities such as treasury baskets and water play. They will feel motivated and will want to explore different outcomes from activities.A stimulating environment can be challenging which will encourage the baby's progression and learning and promote overall development. B1 – Evaluate the role of the practitioner in promoting an inclusive approach when working with babies and their families. When working with babies and their families, practitioners should promote an inclusive approach. â€Å"To include someone means making them feel a part if what is happening. † Tassoni et al 2007 page 8 Through this the practitioner will take into consideration the baby's individual needs, for example if the baby needs more time to settle in then the practitioner should accommodate this.It is important that the practitioner practices this way as the parents will feel valued and that the needs of their child are being met, it is the practitioners job to make sure the parents wishes are being met, for inclusive practice, the practitioner needs information on how to provide such an aspect, therefore, staff can go on training courses to refresh or retrain to provide an inclusive environment. It is essential for the practitioner to be up to date with current legislation to ake sure their practice is effective, for example a new child joins the setting with a disability, you could take a course on how to provide and include the child within the setting. The practitioner can also review their policies and procedures handbook and review the inclusive policy, this ensures that the practitioner can include all babies into activities no matter what gender, race, religion or disability the child has. The united Nations Convention on the Rights of the child has many articles on inclusivity in whic h the practitioner can revise: â€Å"Article 3: The right to be protected from all forms of discrimination. Tassoni et al 2007 page 115 The practitioner can also make sure there is an inclusive approach, by using a selection of resources which promote positive images and diversity. These can include posters of children sharing and books on diverse cultures and faiths. From this, the children will learn to respect other beliefs. They must also challenge and respond to poor practice. For instance, if the practitioner observes a child who is being left out or discriminated then they should intervene and stop it. This will make sure all children are included.However this may be difficult, if the practitioner does not see it, as it may happen when the children are playing quietly. By reflecting the practitioner can make sure that every child is included. This is because they can look back on an activity and see if anyone did not participate and why they didn't. However this may be hard for the practitioner if they do not know how to reflect. This means that they should go on training courses and find out new information from peer observations. The practitioner should also use positive language and not stereotype.This will make the children feel welcome and included. However this may be difficult if the practitioner does not have respect. It is so important, that the practitioner has partnership with parents. This is because they can find out the babies individual needs, which the practitioner can take into consideration when planning activities. A -Reflect on the influence of theoretical perspectives of development and attachment on current practice in settings working with babies under 1 year of age. There are many theorists that influence the current practice of working with abies and their attachments, for example Mary Ainsworth and John Bowlby who believed â€Å"Attachment is an emotional bond to another person. † www. psychology. about. com John Bowlby (1907-1990) believed that babies needed a strong, stable relationship with their primary carer, mainly being the mother. He also believed that the baby will find it hard later on in life to develop positive relationships with others if the baby doesn’t form a positive relationship with the primary carer. He found that babies cried and tried to escape when separated form the main carers, this was later branded and expanded by Ainsworth as ‘separation anxiety'.The child is distraught by the absence of their main carer and then calms and shows a more comfortable behaviour once the carer returns. This also shows the strength and type of attachment the baby shares with the primary carer. There are 3 types of attachment according to Bowlby: secure, resistant and avoident. These forms of attachment where found in Ainsworths study called the Strange Situation. This study observed the behaviour of babies between 12 and 18 months of stages where they where left alone with a stra nger or completely alone.Ainsworth found that the secure attachment type would be very distressed at the absence of the parent whereas the resistant attachment would show intense levels of distress and the avoident type would be fine, unfazed by the strangers attention or mothers absence. Ainsworth's theory influenced practice as practitioners now encourage parents to bring babies into the setting as soon as possible so that the baby can bond with its key worker and so that the baby will not be upset that its primary carer has left.The recognition of attachment has helped practice in many ways, such as the key worker being the second carer of the child while the parents work. The key worker will form a bond with the child and have better opportunities in finding out the child’s needs from the parents, some settings send the key worker out the the babies house before coming to the setting so that the child recognises the practitioner. The key worker, through developing this bo nd with baby and parents, can inform the staff of any new information that concerns the baby.This key worker gives the child a sense of security when around him/her as they have someone to go to in the future if they need anything. The key worker will bond with the child throughout the day through the routines of the setting, even nappy changing. There should also be another person that the child is quite attached to, but not the key worker. The baby will need they will need an additional person who they can feel comfortable with as they key worker may not work 5 days a week, in this case, there would be a second key worker or co-worker in which is a main part of the babies stay at nursery.The key worker is effective, because they empower the baby, as they have made a bond with them, which makes the child confident. Piaget 1896-1980 identified the different stages of development. He said that children moved through the sensory motor stage (0-2 years), pre operational stage (2-7 year s). He used the expression ‘Schema' to state a child’s thought process, † – Assimilation. – equilibrium. – disequilibrium. -accommodation. † Tassoni et al page 66 he felt that the schema would change as soon as contradicting information came in, for example: – † ‘Every day he lady in nursery is waiting for me in the room. – ‘I am in the shop but I see the lady from the nursery. what is she doing here because she is always at the nursery? ‘ – ‘the lady at nursery doesn’t stay there all the time. ‘ . † Tassoni et al page 66 During the sensory motor stage he said â€Å"The child develops physical schemas as he/she gains control of his/her movements. † Tassoni et al 2007 page 67 Throughout the pre-operational stage the â€Å"Children begin to use symbols to stand for things, for example a piece of dough represents a cake. † Tassoni et al 2007 page 67 Bruner a lso observes that the process of constructing knowledge of the world is not done in isolation but rather within a social context. † Meggit 2006 page 56 He argued that children should need things such as books and interest tables. He is known for ‘scaffolding' which is when adults help the children's development in a way that best suits the child. * Bruce. T, Meggit C (1999) Child care and education 2nd edition , London , Hodder and Stoughton * Meggit. C (2006) Child development , An illustrated guide , Heinemann, London * Tassoni. P (2007) Child care and education 4th edition , London, Heinemann

Inference Practice

Making an Inference Directions: Some of the questions following the passages ask you to make inferences from the passages. To infer means to arrive at a conclusion by reasoning from evidence. Synonyms for infer are deduce, judge, or conclude. If you are told to infer something from a passage, you are basically being asked what conclusions can be drawn from the content of the story. Tip: If you replace the word infer with conclude in a question, it may make more sense to you. In cities throughout the country, there is a new direction in local campaign coverage.Frequently in local elections, journalists are not giving voters enough information to understand the issues and evaluate the candidates. The local news media devotes too much time to scandal and not enough time to policy. 1. This paragraph best supports the statement that the local news media a. is not doing an adequate job when it comes to covering local campaigns. b. does not understand either campaign issues or politics. c. should learn how to cover politics by watching the national news media. d. has no interest in covering stories about local political events.The use of desktop computer equipment and software to create high-quality documents such as newsletters, business cards, letterhead, and brochures is called Desktop Publishing, or DTP. The most important part of any DTP project is planning. Before you begin, you should know your intended audience, the message you want to communicate, and what form your message will take. 2. The paragraph best supports the statement that e. Desktop Publishing is one way to become acquainted with a new business audience. f. computer software is continually being refined to produce high-quality printing. . the first stage of any proposed DTP project should be organization and design. h. the planning stage of any DTP project should include talking with the intended audience. The entire low-carbohydrate versus low-fat diet argument is so prevalent that one would thin k that these are the only two options available for losing weight and staying healthy. Some experts even feel that the low-carb/low-fat debate distracts us from an even more important issue—our culture's reliance on processed and manufactured foods. 3. The paragraph best supports the statement that i. xperts state that not all fats are equal, so we need not reduce our intake of all fats; just those that contain partially hydrogenated oils. j. important health concerns get overlooked when we focus exclusively on the low-fat versus low-carb question. k. low-carbohydrate diets lead to significant and sustained weight loss. l. processed foods can lead to many adverse health problems including heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and obesity. Every year, Americans use over one billion sharp objects to administer healthcare in their homes. These sharp objects include lancets, needles, and syringes.If not disposed of in puncture-resistant containers, they can injure sanitation workers. Sharp objects should be disposed of in hard plastic or metal containers with secure lids. The containers should be clearly marked and be puncture resistant. 4. The paragraph best supports the idea that sanitation workers can be injured if they m. do not place sharp objects in puncture-resistant containers. n. come in contact with sharp objects that have not been placed in secure containers. o. are careless with sharp objects such as lancets, needles, and syringes in their homes. p. o not mark the containers they pick up with a warning that those containers contain sharp objects. Litigation is not always the only or best way to resolve conflicts. Mediation offers an alternative approach and it is one that can be quite efficient and successful. Mediation can be faster, less expensive, and can lead to creative solutions not always possible in a court of law. Additionally, mediation focuses on mutually acceptable solutions, rather than on winning or losing. 5. This paragraph best suppor ts the idea that q. there is too much reliance on litigation in our society. r. itigation is expensive, slow, and limited by its reliance on following the letter of the law. s. mediation is the best way to resolve a crisis. t. mediation can be an effective way to resolve conflicts. One of the missions of the Peace Corps is to help the people of interested countries meet their need for trained men and women. People who work for the Peace Corps do so because they want to, but to keep the agency dynamic with fresh ideas, no staff member can work for the agency for more than five years. 6. The paragraph best supports the statement that Peace Corps employees u. are highly intelligent people. . must train for about five years. w. are hired for a limited term of employment. x. have both academic and work experience. More and more office workers telecommute from offices in their own homes. The upside of telecommuting is both greater productivity and greater flexibility. Telecommuters produc e, on average, 20% more than if they were to work in an office, and their flexible schedule allows them to balance both their family and work responsibilities. 7. The paragraph best supports the statement that telecommuters y. get more work done in a given time period than workers who travel to the office. . produce a better quality work product than workers who travel to the office. {. are more flexible in their ideas than workers who travel to the office. |. would do 20% more work if they were to work in an office. Sushi, the thousand-year-old Japanese delicacy, started small in the United States, in a handful of restaurants in big cities. Today, sushi consumption in America is 50% greater than it was ten years ago and not just in restaurants. Sushi is also sold at concession stands in sports stadiums, university dining halls, and in supermarkets throughout the country. . This paragraph best supports the statement that }. sushi is now a fast food as popular as hot dogs, burgers, a nd fries. ~. more sushi is sold in restaurants than in supermarkets. . Americans are more adventurous eaters than they were in the past. . sushi wasn't always widely available in the United States. Today's shopping mall has as its antecedents historical marketplaces, such as Greek agoras, European piazzas, and Asian bazaars. The purpose of these sites, as with the shopping mall, is both economic and social.People not only go to buy and sell wares, but also to be seen, catch up on news, and be part of the human drama. 9. The paragraph best supports the statement that . modern Americans spend an average of 15 hours a month in shopping malls. . shopping malls serve an important purpose in our culture. . shopping malls have a social as well as commercial function. . there are historical antecedents for almost everything in contemporary society. Many animals hibernate during parts of the year, entering a state that is similar to a very deep sleep. But hibernation is more than simply a d eep sleep.The animal's body temperature drops well below its normal range, the animal does not wake up for a long period of time, and its metabolism slows to the point that the animal does not need to eat or relieve itself during that period. In order to prepare for hibernation, the animal must build up its body weight and increase its body fat. This is important, since the animal will be living off its own body fat during the months of hibernation. Of course, once the period of hibernation is over, the animal â€Å"wakes up† to find itself slim and trim once again! 10. How does an animal prepare for hibernation? . It exercises for two months. It gradually increases its sleeping habits. . It grows extra fur. . It eats more food than usual. 11. This passage best supports the statement that . all animals hibernate to some degree. . food is scarce in the winter. . hibernation is very different from normal sleep. . bears hibernate every year. Patrick Henry is considered one of th e great patriots of America's early history. He was a leader in every protest against British tyranny and in every movement for colonial rights, openly speaking against the unfair taxation and overly burdensome regulations imposed upon the American colonists by the British Parliament.In March 1775, Patrick Henry urged his fellow Virginians to arm themselves in self-defense. He spoke boldly in Richmond, Virginia, during the meeting of the state legislature. He closed that famous speech with the immortal words, â€Å"I know not what course others may take; but as for me, give me liberty or give me death. † 12. This passage best supports the statement that . Patrick Henry later became a governor of West Virginia. . the Virginia legislature was not listening to Henry's speech. . Patrick Henry was willing to lay down his life for his country. People in Colonial times faced harsh living conditions. 13. Which of the following would be the most appropriate title for this passage? . T he Speeches of Patrick Henry . Patrick Henry, American Patriot . Early American Patriots . History of the Virginia Legislature Ratatouille is a dish that has grown in popularity over the last few years. It features eggplant, zucchini, tomatoes, peppers, and garlic chopped, mixed, sauteed, and finally, cooked slowly over low heat. As the vegetables cook slowly, they make their own broth, which may be extended with a little tomato paste.The name ratatouille comes from the French word touiller, meaning to stir or mix together. 14. Which of the following is the correct order of steps for making ratatouille? . chop vegetables, add tomato paste, stir or mix together . mix the vegetables together, saute them, and add tomato paste . cook the vegetables slowly, mix them together, add tomato paste . add tomato paste to extend the broth and cook slowly overlow heat 15. Ratatouille can best be described as a . French pastry. . sauce to put over vegetables. . pasta dish extended with tomato past e. vegetable stew. The competitive civil-service system is designed to give candidates fair and equal treatment and to ensure that federal applicants are hired based on objective criteria. Hiring has to be based solely on a candidate's knowledge, skills, and abilities (which you'll sometimes see abbreviated as ksa), and not on external factors such as race, religion, sex, and so on. Whereas employers in the private sector can hire employees for subjective reasons, federal employers must be able to justify their decision with objective evidence that the candidate is qualified. 6. The paragraph best supports the statement that . hiring in the private sector is inherently unfair. . ksa is not as important as test scores to federal employers. . federal hiring practices are simpler than those employed by the private sector. . the civil service strives to hire on the basis of a candidate's abilities. 17. The federal government's practice of hiring on the basis of ksa frequently results in the hiring of employees . based on race, religion, sex, and so forth. . who are unqualified for the job. . who are qualified for the job. on the basis of subjective judgment. It is well known that the world urgently needs adequate distribution of food, so that everyone gets enough. Adequate distribution of medicine is just as urgent. Medical expertise and medical supplies need to be redistributed throughout the world so that people in emerging nations will have proper medical care. 18. This paragraph best supports the statement that . the majority of the people in the world have no medical care. . medical resources in emerging nations have diminished in the past few years. not enough doctors give time and money to those in need of medical care. . many people who live in emerging nations are not receiving proper medical care. Knitting has made a major comeback. People are knitting on college campuses, in coffee shops, and in small knitting groups throughout the United States. New kn itting stores, many with cafes, are popping up all over, and there are more knitting books and magazines being published than ever before. And not all of these knitters are women: As knitting continues to surge in popularity, men are picking up knitting needles in record numbers. 9. The paragraph best supports the statement that . joining a knitting group is a great way to make new friends. . some people knit because it helps them relax and release stress. . today's knitter is not the stereotypical grandmother in a rocking chair. . as is the case with all fads, this new obsession with knitting will fade quickly. Everyone is sensitive to extreme weather conditions. But with age, the body may become less able to respond to long exposure to very hot or very cold temperatures. Some older people might develop hypothermia when exposed to cold weather.Hypothermia is a drop in internal body temperature, which can be fatal if not detected and treated. 20. The paragraph best supports the stat ement that . cold weather is more dangerous for older people than warm weather. . hypothermia is a condition that only affects older people. . older people who live in warm climates are healthier than older people who live in cold climates. . an older person is more susceptible to hypothermia than a younger person. Whether you can accomplish a specific goal or meet a specific deadline depends first on how much time you need to get the job done.What should you do when the demands of the job exceed the time you have available? The best approach is to divide the project into smaller pieces. Different goals will have to be divided in different ways, but one seemingly unrealistic goal can often be accomplished by working on several smaller, more reasonable goals. 21. The main idea of the passage is that . jobs often remain only partially completed because of lack of time. . the best way to complete projects is to make sure your goals are achievable. . the best way to tackle a large proje ct is to separate it into smaller parts. the best approach to a demanding job is to delegate responsibility. Health clubs have undergone a major transformation that can be described in three words: mind, body, and spirit. Loud, fast, heartt-humping aerobics has been replaced by the hushed tones of yoga and the controlled movements of Pilates. The clubs are responding to the needs of their customers who are increasingly looking for a retreat from their hectic lifestyles and a way to find a healthy balance in their lives by nurturing their whole selves. 22. The main idea of the paragraph is that exercise is less important now than it once was. . health clubs are much less popular now than they were ten years ago. . many health clubs will go out of business because of the decline in traditional exercise. . people's desire to nurture all aspects of themselves has contributed to big changes for health clubs. For most judges, sentencing a person who has been convicted of a crime is a diff icult decision. In the majority of jurisdictions throughout the country, judges have few sentencing options from which to choose. Generally, their options are confined to a fine, probation, or incarceration.Crimes, however, cover a wide spectrum of criminal behavior and motivation, and a wide variety of sanctions should be available. 23. The main idea of the paragraph is that . there should be laws that dictate which sentence a judge should hand down. . someone other than a judge should be allowed to sentence a criminal. . judges should be given more sentencing options from which to choose. . more money should be spent on the criminal justice system. Before you begin to compose a business letter, sit down and think about your purpose in writing the letter.Do you want to request information, order a product, register a complaint, or apply for something? Do some brainstorming and gather information before you begin writing. Always keep your objective in mind. 24. The main idea of the passage is that . planning is an important part of writing a business letter. . business letters are frequently complaint letters. . brainstorming and writing take approximately equal amounts of time. . many people fail to plan ahead when they are writing a business letter. Keeping busy at important tasks is much more motivating than having too little to do.Today's employees are not afraid of responsibility. Most people are willing to take on extra responsibility in order to have more variety in their positions. In addition, along with that responsibility should come more authority to independently carry out some important tasks. 25. The main idea of the paragraph is that . variety and independence on the job increase employee motivation. . to avoid boredom, many people do more work than their jobs require of them. . today's employees are demanding more independence than ever before. . office jobs in the past have carried less responsibility.Managing job and family is not simple. Bo th commitments make strong demands on people and are sometimes in direct opposition to each other. Saying yes to one means saying no to the other, and stress can often result. Being realistic and creating a balance in life can help set priorities. 26. The main idea of the paragraph is that . most family responsibilities cause stress at home and at work. . because it pays the bills, a job must take priority over other commitments. . it is important to have a balance between job and family responsibilities. because they are so important, family duties must take priority over the job. Women business owners are critically important to the American economy, yet women still face unique obstacles in the business world. The U. S. Small Business Administration offers a variety of programs and services to help women-owned businesses succeed and to advocate for women entrepreneurs. 27. This paragraph best supports the statement that women business owners . have more success in the United State s than in other countries. . cannot succeed without outside help. . may find the Small Business Administration a useful resource. should not make any major decisions without seeking the advice of the Small Business Administration. Passages in this section can have one to six questions following. You must respond accordingly. Use of electronic mail (e-mail) has been widespread for more than a decade. E-mail simplifies the flow of ideas, connects people from distant offices, eliminates the need for meetings, and often boosts productivity. However, e-mail should be carefully managed to avoid unclear and inappropriate communication. E-mail messages should be concise and limited to one topic.When complex issues need to be addressed, phone calls are still best. 28. The main idea of the paragraph is that e-mail . is not always the easiest way to connect people from distant offices. . has changed considerably since it first began a decade ago. . causes people to be unproductive when it is u sed incorrectly. . is effective for certain kinds of messages but only if managed wisely. 29. Which of the following would be the most appropriate title for the passage? . Appropriate Use of E-Mail . E-Mail's Popularity . E-Mail: The Ideal Form of Communication . Why Phone Calls Are Better Than E-MailNative American art often incorporates a language of abstract visual symbols. The artist gives a poetic message to the viewer, communicating the beauty of an idea, either by using religious symbols or a design from nature such as rain on leaves or sunshine on water. The idea communicated may even be purely whimsical, in which case the artist might start out with symbols developed from a bird's tracks or a child's toy. 30. The main idea of the passage is that Native American art . is purely poetic and dreamlike. . is usually abstract, although it can also be poetic and beautiful. communicates the beauty of ideas through the use of symbols. . is sometimes purely whimsical. Answers 1. a. C hoice d may seem attractive at first, but the passage simply says that the local media does not adequately cover local politics—it doesn't discuss the reason for their neglect. 2. c. Sentence 3 indicates the importance of organization and design. The other choices, even if true, are not in the passage. 3. b. Both sentences in this passage support the idea that the emphasis on the low-carb/low-fat debate is misleading and might distract us from other important ideas.The other choices are not supported by or developed in this passage. 4. b. The other choices are wrong because the passage is not concerned with how sanitation workers should deal with sharp objects but with how everyone should dispose of sharp objects in order to avoid hurting sanitation workers. 5. d. See the second sentence of the passage. Choices a and b are not in the passage. Choice c might seem attractive, but the passage does not say that mediation is the best way to resolve a conflict, simply that it is an alternative way that might prove effective. 6. c. See the final sentence of the passage.The other choices might be true but are not in the passage. 7. a. The second sentence speaks of the greater productivity of telecommuters. The other choices may seem attractive on the surface because they contain words and phrases from the passage, but a closer look will show them to be incorrect or absent from the passage. 8. d. The first sentence indicates that sushi was once available only in a handful of eating establishments. 9. c. Choice b may seem attractive at first, but the passage doesn't offer the opinion that the purpose of the shopping mall is important, it simply tells us what the purposes are. 0. d. The second paragraph states that an animal prepares for hibernation by increasing its body weight and fat. The reader can infer from this that the animal eats more food than usual. 11. c. The passage states that hibernation is â€Å"more than simply a deep sleep,† then lists sev eral ways that hibernation differs from sleep. The other choices are not addressed in the passage. 12. c. Patrick Henry's famous words, â€Å"Give me liberty or give me death,† indicate that he was willing to fight for his nation's freedom—even if it cost him his life. The other choices are not addressed in the passage. 3. b. The passage is about Patrick Henry, and focuses on his patriotic activities. No other patriot is mentioned, nor is information given about his other speeches or about the Virginia legislature. 14. b. See the second and third sentences for the steps in making ratatouille. Only choice b reflects the correct order. 15. d. The main part of the passage describes how to cook vegetables. Only choice d indicates that vegetables are included in the dish. The other choices are not reflected in the passage. 16. d. See the final sentence of the passage. 17. c.See the second sentence, which defines ksa. The other choices are refuted in the passage. 18. d. This answer is implied by the statement that redistribution is needed so that people in emerging nations can have proper medical care. Choices a, b, and c are not mentioned in the passage. 19. c. This choice is the best answer because the paragraph indicates that the new knitters are of varying ages and are not just women. Choices a and b may be true, but they are not supported by the paragraph. Choice d is a prediction that is not made in the paragraph. 20. d.The paragraph specifically states that age makes a person less able to respond to long exposure to very hot or very cold temperatures. This would mean that older people are more susceptible to hypothermia. Choices a, b, and c are not supported by the information given in the paragraph. 21. c. The third sentence is the main idea. It is a general idea that answers the only question posed in the passage. The other choices are not in the passage. 22. d. The passage states that health clubs have undergone a major transformation due to people's interest in taking care of their minds, bodies, and spirits.Choice a is incorrect because the paragraph doesn't say exercise is less important. It simply says the focus and type of exercise have changed. Choices b and c are not supported by the paragraph. 23. c. This choice is closely related to all three sentences of the passage. Choice a is contradicted in the passage. Choices b and d are not in the passage. 24. a. The entire passage relates to this idea. The other ideas are not reflected in the passage. 25. a. This is the main idea of the passage because all the sentences relate to it.The other choices may be true but are not reflected in the passage. 26. c. This idea is expressed in the final sentence and wraps up the passage, speaking of the importance of creating a balance. The other choices are not in the passage. 27. c. The support for choice c is given in the second sentence. No support is given for choices a and d. Choice b is incorrect because the paragraph state s that women business owners face unique obstacles, but it does not say that they absolutely require outside help to succeed, just that it is available. 8. d. This choice encompasses the main information in the passage. Choices a, b, and c are not mentioned. 29. a. The title should express the main idea of the passage. The passage, as a whole, focuses on appropriate and inappropriate uses of e-mail. The other choices address more specific ideas expressed in the passage but are not its main idea. 30. c. The first and second sentences reflect this idea. The passage does not say that Native American art is dreamlike (choice a). Choices b and d are too limited to be main ideas.

China Compare to Australia

Abstract Consumer behaviour is important for any marketer. Cross cultural analysis provides crucial information as to what can be successful exported to international markets. In relation segmentation in China Australians need understand culture, subculture and cross-cultural affiliation. Another important factor when considering marketing opportunities is Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs. It is ever present that there are economic and cultural differences within China. Due to increased globalization and increased Westernisation of China cultures are beginning to blend.Understanding these two theories is imperative for exporters trying to expand into the diverse and complex Chinese market. Introduction: Cross-Cultural Analysis The Australia -China Free Trade Agreement (ACFTA) is offering the opportunities for Australian exporters to a gain more sustainable competitive advantages in the second largest economy in the world. Chinese domestic economic growth, liberalisation, and recent membership to the World Trade Organisation have given opportunities for Australian exporters and firms to expand in China (ACCI, 2004).Therefore, cross – cultural analysis has become an important tool for Australian marketers in analysing to what extent consumers of the two different nations differ. As a result, marketers will be able to study and understand in-depth the foreign market which to whom they will market their products to, since cultural acknowledgement will have a significant impact to every aspects of marketing particularly in segmenting the market and understanding the consumers' behaviors. People from different countries have different culture that shaped their characteristics and behaviors in their purchasing activity.Chinese Culture vs. Australian Culture (Segmentation: Culture, subculture and cross-cultural affiliation) Consumer behaviour is the most essential aspect of marketing, which outlines what consumers’ need, and what influences their buying behaviour. Therefore, it is vital to discuss the cultural, social, personal and physiological characteristic of the Chinese consumers in order for Australian marketers to understand Chinese consumer behaviours in order to successfully penetrate into the Chinese market. There are several ifferent studies conducted by experts which accentuate that the immature Chinese market's behaviour is similar to Australian culture who are price and brand sensitive, and are now constantly moving towards mature market, who view the well known foreign brands with superior quality and service as leverage to their social status (Yi-You, 2004). This movement is the result of the Chinese culture that underpins the importance of social status and a robust economy that boosts consumer confidence in spending (Giele, 2009). For instance, the sales figure for luxury cars in China has surprisingly increased within 2005-2010.According to the customs figures China has imported more than 100,000 luxury cars in recent years, approximately valued at $4. 84 billion (China Business, 2006). This example underlines the growing Chinese economy that significantly affected by consumers' spending bahaviour. It is obvious that Australia is similar in a sense where we live in a culture that underpins importance of social status; however this does not mean Australians will go out and buy a luxury car for the sake of promoting their economical situation.Australian consumers tend to use a cost-benefit analysis, that is, will the benefits of the vehicle outweigh its price, if yes sales will tend to increase, if no sales will drop (Reh, 2009). Therefore while there is a small similarity in demographic segment opportunities (socio-economical status), the buyer behaviour decision still differs. Luxury Cars Thus, it is crucial for Australian marketers to choose the best entry and pricing strategies to gain the potential market's loyalty and trust.In relation to the car industry, Australian subsidiaries such as Holden and Ford can penetrate the market with their high end vehicles the Calais, Caprice, Senator and Mondeo and ultimately make Chinese consumers aware of the quality and luxury that such brands underpin (Financial Times, 2009). In doing so exporters need to set themselves aside from competitors including Mercedes, BMW, AUDI and even neighbouring brand Lexus and show consumers the unique opportunity of investing in an Australian Luxury Vehicle. Chinese Superstition Furthermore, distinct Chinese culture is also playing an important role in shaping consumer's behaviour.Chinese people believe in â€Å"Feng Shui†, it is the strongest cultural impact on consumers in the decision-making process. This Differs from Australian culture who has a different perspective on such superstitious belief, in most cases Australian consumers would mock a marketing strategy with such a belief. Thus where the buying decisions of the Chinese is dependent on this cultural principle, the Australi an consumers care more about product quality, price, perceived benefits and service of the product, as opposed to what the product represents (Giele, 2009). Chinese believe that Feng Shui will bring them luck and peace.Therefore, Chinese consumers will consult â€Å"Feng Shui† experts before making the purchasing decision. For example, Chinese people interpreted number four (? pinyin si) as bad luck since it is nearly homophonous to the word â€Å"death† (? pinyin si). Therefore people in China do not like anything that involving number four (Lubin, 2010). In saying this when marketing Australian exporters should market in relation to positive Feng Shui beliefs in China. For example when marketing Australian wine which is rapidly increasing in popularity in the Chinese market, a marketer should avoid any aged wine with the number four.That is for example Shiraz from 2004, 1994, 1984. This has been reflected in the dramatic fall in sales, during 2004, and marketers were bewildered as to why it occurred (Lubin, 2010). Marketers should in fact promote wine from years that have the number eight included, as this is a symbol of prosperity and happiness. In saying this in the year 2008 Australian wine exporters could not keep up with demand from Chinese consumers, an increase in 32% from the previous year (Winefacts, 2009).Thus in order for Australians to penetrate the market they should do so harmoniously with the Feng Shui principle in order to succeed. Exporting alcoholic beverage to the Chinese Segment Culture is one of the most important factors and basic causes that influence consumer behaviour. It involves the attitudes, beliefs and knowledge which determine consumer’s buyer behaviour (Schiffman et al. 2008). For example, when there are a small number of consumers, it is easy for them to try and feel product variations and quality then the producer must meet the expectation.If these expectations are not met, consumers would never repurcha se that product. However, if there are a large number of consumers, a brand name must be established in order to reach new consumers, and it will develop with continued purchase by the consumer. In this process, marketer must adjust the product depending on different segmentations like culture. Take beer for instance, when a new brand of beer is introduced into a beer drinking country like Australia, fresh beer is always kept chilled, and Consumers do not want to order beer without being cool.It also needs to be kept away from the sunlight to maintain its taste, which is different from Chinese. In China, beer does not need to be kept in freezer and always exposed to the sunlight. Moreover, there is a difference of beer taste between Australian consumers and Chinese consumers. If the company exports the Australian beer directly to China, Chinese consumers will not accept it because Australian beer tastes too strong for the Chinese consumer (Mona Chung , 2007). Similarly, Chinese whit e spirit cannot fit Australian consumers because it is too hot for them.Nowadays, China's taste for wine provides a great market opportunity to Western Australia. Chinese consumers are growing interest for nice Australia wine. Agriculture and Food Minister, Mr. Redman said â€Å"Premium wine industry is gaining the attention of consumers in China, but to date there has not been a Chinese language book with information on WA wineries for this market†. Because Chinese consumers are getting thirst for Australia wine, Redman had launched a book in mandarin in Shanghai about Australian wine which includes 100 local top wineries in order to satisfy Chinese consumer expectation.Australia is one of top suppliers of wine to China. The wine exported annually to China has increased by 20% over the past 2 years (Josette Dunn, 2010). Redman predicts that the number of wine imported to China would grow to 1. 26 billion in 2013. Also , according to the research , total Australian wine expor ts to China grew 37% annually from 1999-2000 to 2004-2005 and increased at a rate of 84% annually from 2004-2005 to 2009-2010 . Moreover , wine intelligence shows the market in China which import wine could grow to between 70 and 80 million cases by 2025 (2010).In saying this, it is obvious that when segmenting to the Chinese market, marketers must take into account the diverse cultural beliefs of Chinese consumers, but also take into account the close similarities between buyer behaviours of the two nations. Hierarchy of needs Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (appendix 1) has been cited in numerous texts both in psychology and marketing. In the marketing context the hierarchy is useful in interpreting how different products and services satisfy different needs. The hierarchy is based on intuitive notion that certain needs must satisfied, at least partially, before reaching the next level.The most basic need of the hierarchy is physiological, examples are food, water and breathing . The next level is safety and security needs which covers shelter, protection and stability. These first two levels are necessary for human survival. The next three levels consist of psychological needs. These respectively are:- social needs such as affection, belonging and friendship; ego needs which includes prestige, status and self-respect and final self-actualisation which is the idea of self fulfilment or finding meaning with one’s life. Differences between culture China is generally considered a Collectivist culture.Collectivism is based on unity of the group, where people are encouraged to conform to society and do what is best for the community as a whole (Britannica, 2010). This means individuals are more easily persuaded by friends and family as there is a strong desire to fit in. Contrastingly, Australian and other Western Cultures are seen individualist societies where more emphasis is placed on each person being unique. This is why marketing is focused on makin g individuals stand out rather than blend in with the rest of the crowd (see appendix 2 & 3 for examples).In the Chinese commercial (appendix 2) it can be seen that collective culture and history still plays a major role in Chinese culture. The ad clearly targets the social need as Pepsi is seen to be drunk by the group and the new student must crush the can to be accepted into this culture. This allows him to become part of the dynasty and conform to the norm. This is juxtaposed to American commercial (appendix 3) where the individual is the focus of ad. It appeals to the ego and self actualisation needs as by drinking Pepsi you can achieve your ambition and be separated from the rest of the crowd.Thus the distinct marketing differences between the Collective Chinese culture and individualistic Australian culture can be seen. China is the world’s fastest growing economy and as such there has been a huge influx of Multi-national corporations. This has started to have an influ ence on China’s urban areas as they are becoming individualistic due to Western products. The change can also be attributed to the one child policy. This has made the new generation of Chinese far more self-centred and have become more indulgent in themselves as costs to run a family have lowered dramatically.This has allowed this generation far greater influence over their families decision making (Mari, 2008). Though Australia is seen as a uniform society where there is little poverty and relatively small gap between rich and poor in China however there is very distinct divide between urban and rural populations. The annual per capita income of urban Chinese was roughly three times as high as their rural counterparts and the Engel coefficient was 37% for urban and 46% for rural (Mari, 2008). Even more demonstrative is that Chinese urban and rural consumer spend only 3. and 2. 13% of their total income respectively on entertainment. This is compared to Australia where our to tal GDP per capita is $38,911 (World economic outlook database, 2010) and the average household spends a $150 a week on both groceries and entertainment. This equates to 22% of GDP per capita. It is obvious Australian culture focuses on high levels rather than the lower need on the hierarchy (ABS, 2006). The effect of Culture on the Hierarchy The differences in purchasing behaviour for urban and rural Chinese can be explained by Maslow’s needs hierarchy.People living in rural China live in a far more traditional society (Collective) and their consumption of goods is used to satisfy the social need to give a sense of belonging. Though the majority of their earnings is to satisfy their physiological, safety and security needs. The bicycle is an example of the social differences of culture in China. The bicycle is the main mode of transport as cars are still too expensive to afford for rural commuters. The bicycle is fulfilling their safety and security need as it allows people to get to work and thus provide for their family.Contrastingly, bicycles and bike riding in Australia is seen as a subculture mainly for leisure. Consumers who purchase bikes are doing so for their ego and self actualisation needs as they are simultaneously helping to lower pollution and increasing their physical appearance (At, 2006) Chinese; moving up Maslow’s Hierarchy Due to the cultural differences, there are high demands in luxurious branded items such as Louis Vuitton. This demand has increased due to higher incomes which has led consumers to access the higher levels of Maslow’s hierarchy.Chinese people are now purchasing luxury items for the prestige and social status which is associated with the high end brand. Loius Vuittton introduced itself into China as must have brand in order to conform to popular culture (Bloomberg Businessweek, 2007) Therefore, marketers of this brand have successfully expanded into this emerging market as it is evident that Chinese co nsumers tend to buy the same brand as others which is represented in their buying culture (Yau, 2007). However, Australians are less concerned about conforming to society so once a brand becomes popular consumers tend to try and create a new fashion trend.When Loius Vuitton markets to Australia it has constantly change its products as to not become a ‘fad’ or lose interest allowing customers to remain brand loyal. Australian Exporting opportunities It appears there are opportunities for Australians to export into China. As more and more urban areas are becoming Westernised more international companies are trying to gain entrance into the Chinese market. Hence as China’s economy continues to grow so will the income of its population giving them more discretion on purchases as they move up Maslow’s needs hierarchy.To effectively market to these consumers at present an Australian exporter would use direct marketing and word of mouth to make use of Collectivis t culture of China. Exporting education is the most worthwhile export. Marketers can accentuate the self actualisation and ego needs of the Chinese people and show them that by attending an Australian University they are likely to have a better education, giving them more employment opportunities, ultimately a better way of life thus satisfying these higher level needs.Moreover, Australian exporters can highlight to Chinese businesses the growing importance of speaking English, which they can gain under an Australian education. This will give them a far greater ability to expand outside of Asia. To make this easier Australian Universities can situate a campus within China in order to grant easier access to Australian education. This maintains the social needs of Chinese students but could fulfil their ego and self actualisation by learning English from a prestigious institution.Recently the world expo in Beijing gave Australian exporters a chance to promote Australian education and give a good insight into the benefits of studying in Australia (Xiuyun, 2009). Conclusion It is evident there exists great potential for Australians to expand in the Chinese market but in order to do this they must understand socio-cultural segmentation and why different segments embody different needs on Maslow’s hierarchy. It is also important to understand the similarities between the two nations as China is becoming more Westernised, therefore insight into Western and Chinese culture is collectively important.References At, M. 2006, Bicycle culture, Copenhagenize. com, viewed at 26th August 2010 . Australian Bureau Statistics, 2010, Perspectives on Regional Australia, Australian Government view at 25th August 2010, . Australian Chambers of Commerce And Industry, 2004, Australia-China Free Trade Agreement, ACCI, Viewed 25th August 2010 . Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation 2009, Winefacts, Australian Government, viewed 27 August 2010 . Reh, JF 2009, Cost-Benefit Analysi s, About. com, viewed 27 August 2010, . Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation , Did you know? -China , Issue 31, 6 August 2010 , viewed 27th August 2010 . Bloomberg Businessweek 2007, Louis Vuitton's Life of Luxury, Bloomberg, viewed August 23rd 2010 ;http://www. businessweek. com/magazine/content/07_32/b4045419. htm;. Chan RYK 2001, ‘Determinants of Chinese consumers’ green purchase behaviour’, Psychology and Marketing, vol. 18, issue 4, pp 389 – 413 Chung M. , Smith W. 2007, The Importance Of Overcoming Cultural Barriers In Establishing Brand Names: An Australian Company In China, Innovative Marketing, Volume 3, Issue 2.China Business, 2006, Luxury Car Sales Booming in China, Asia Times online, viewed 25 August 2010 ;http://www. atimes. com/atimes/China_Business/HK28Cb02. html;. Dunn J. , June 28 , 2010 . China’s taste for WA wine translates to market opportunity ,viewed 27th August 2010 , ;http://www. ausfoodnews. com. au/2010/06/28/chinas-taste -for-wa-wine-translates-to-market-opportunity. html;. Encyclopedia Britannica 2010, Collectivism, Encyclopedia Britannica, viewed at 25th August 2010 ;http://www. britannica. com/EBchecked/topic/125584/collectivism;.Financial Times 2009, Shopping Habits of China’s Suddenly Wealthy, Save the Elephants, viewed 25 August 2010 ;http://www. savetheelephants. org/news-reader/items/shopping-habits-of-chinas-suddenly-wealthy. html;. Gatfield, T ; Youseff, M 2001, ‘A critical examination of and Reflection on the Chinese Family Business Unit and the Chinese Business Clan’, Family Business Review, vol. 14, issue 2, pp 153 – 158 Giele, F 2009, Chinese Consumer Behaviour: An Introduction, Frans Giele, viewed 25 August 2010 ;http://fransgiele. be/freematerial/2009chineseconsumerbehaviour. pdf;.Lubin, G 2010, A Short guide to the Buying Habits of Chinese Noveau-Riche, Business Insider, Viewed 25 August 2010 ;http://www. businessinsider. com/a-short-guide-to-the-buying-ha bits-of-chinese-nouveau-riche-2010-7;. Mari, A. 2008, Understanding Chinese rural consumers, Course of International Management, viewed 25th August 2010 ;http://www. scribd. com/doc/10863701/Understanding-Chinese-Rural-Consumers-Implications-for-marketers-by-Alex-Mari;. Sun, L 2007, ‘Understanding Self-gift Consumer Behaviour (SGCB) in China: How culture influences SGCB’, MA in Marketing thesis,Weinshall, TD 1993, Societal culture and management, de Gruyter-Studienbuch, Germany World Economic Outlook Database 2010, GDP Per Capita, International Monetary Fund, viewed on 25th August 2010. ;http://www. imf. org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept. aspx? pr. x. html;. Xiuyun, S. 2009, Education to China, Austrade, viewed August 23rd 2010 ;http://www. austrade. gov. au/Education-to-China/default. aspx;. Yi-You, L 2010, Brand Effect on Consumer Behaviour in China, Southern

Analytical essay about (Heart of Darkness 4th edition ) Research Paper

Analytical essay about (Heart of Darkness 4th edition ) - Research Paper Example The main character of the book is Marlow, who sits on the deck of a ship becalmed on the Thames until the tide should turn within these early pages. The time setting is just at sunset and the imagery that presents itself to the men on the boat seems to naturally put them into a reflective state of mind. The narrator of this early section, identified only by the reflective pronoun 'I', even points out that each of the men were too involved in their own thoughts to be interested in playing a game of dominoes that one of them had brought out. The scene as it presents itself to Marlow calls to mind the deep and disturbing memories and ideas that he gained as a fresh-water sailor working in the Congo. Thus, the imagery of this opening scene does a great deal to inform the reader of the ideas Conrad is trying to convey regarding imperial conquest. As can be seen in the above quote, the scene painted for the reader is not the peaceful image one might expect a writer to create given the calm scene. The men are lying about on a ship's deck with nothing to do. The ship itself is described as calm, "without a flutter of her sails" (Conrad, 1). Within this scene, "the water shone pacifically; the sky, without a speck, was a benign immensity of unstained light; the very mist on the Essex marsh was like a gauzy and radiant fabric, hung from the wooded rises inland, and draping the low shores in diaphanous folds" (Conrad, 2). Even the barges moving upstream are seen as standing relatively motionless by the narrator. "The tanned sails of the barges drifting up with the tide seemed to stand still in red clusters of canvas sharply peaked, with gleams of varnished spirits" (Conrad, 2). Imagining this kind of scene, there seems no room for anything that isn't peaceful and calming. The narrator's words illustrate an almost magical timelessness, a place where nothing unpleasant might harm you. However, there are hints at a darkness lying at the heart of this pleasant scene. These ar e found as the narrator describes the change in color of the sunlight from a "glowing white" to a "dull red without rays and without heat" (Conrad, 2). What this imagery indicates is a place once full of hope and light and an ability to warm others has changed to something incapable of reaching out, cold and sullen. It is so close to lifelessness that it is even threatening to " go out suddenly, stricken to death" (Conrad, 2). Even more of the metaphor is exposed when the narrator identifies the cause of the sun's sudden ailment as "the gloom brooding over a crowd of men" (Conrad, 2). This gloom is present in physical form as the narrator describes the dark gathering in the west, "brooding over the upper reaches, became more sombre every minute, as if angered by the approach of the sun" (Conrad, 2). Thus, the scene is lovely and peaceful as long as one only chooses to look in specific directions as one direction suggests something ominous. The imagery of light and dark is also broug ht out in direct relation to man and his activities throughout history. As this opening scene is presented, the narrator describes his reverence for the Thames because of the history and greatness that have been carried out with its assistance. "We looked at the venerable stream not in the vivid flush of a short day that comes and departs forever, but in the august light of abiding memories" (Conrad, 2). These

Nursing documentation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Nursing documentation - Essay Example (Ammenwerth et al., 2003; Audit Commission, 2002) 'A nurse from Coventry was recently removed from the national register after failing to keep accurate records for patients in her care. She was found guilty of seven charges of misconduct. The committee heard that she failed to ensure care plans were prepared for several patients covering issues such as diabetes, pain management and dietary needs. On one occasion, she failed to notify staff of a patient's increased risk of hemorrhage following a drug error. The Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) found the nurse had systematically neglected a basic and crucial duty to keep proper records for the management of patient care.' (Griffin, 2004) And this is only one of the cases found in literature, in relation to the negligence, with which the nurses treat the importance of making records. Castledine (2005) reports about the failures to carry on proper documentation in the Freda House. Freda House is described by him as the establishment for treating blind people. Due to the improper records, which one of the nurses - Bob - was making, many patients and older people in the Freda House were mistreated and had health complications. As a result, 'The managers of Freda House decided to refer Bob to the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) because of the poor explanations and excuses for his actions. He was charged by the NMC with: (1) Completing medication records when the drugs had not been administered; (2) Falsely completing nursing records relating to wound dressings which had not been changed; (3) Failing to change residents' dressings while indicating that he had done so in the patients' care plans; (4) Failing to report at handover to the nurse in charge that he had not administered drugs or changed patients' dressings; (5) Failing to clean the eyes of a resident.' (Castledine, 2005). Of course, this only proves how nurses have got accustomed to the thought that documentation is the skill second to nursing (Tingle, 2001), not understanding its importance for the patient's health. The similar cases are also described by Tingle (2001), British Journal of Nursing (October, 2000), Johnston (1998), Moody (2001). It was surprising to read the work of Bjorvell, Wredling and Thorell-Ekstrand (2003), in which they have come to conclusion that 'most participants, regardless of group, perceived nursing documentation to be beneficial to them in their daily practice and to increase patient safety'. Why then do we have so many reports of the health complications, which appear as a result of the misleading or false nursing records (Anderson, 2000; Charles et al, 2000; Tingle, 1998) Many articles describe the importance of carrying correct nursing records. (Wright, 2003; Scottish Executive, 1999; Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2002; Dion, 2001) For example, Owen (2005) writes in her article, that 'Documenting patient care is extremely important in the community setting as nurses usually visit patients alone, sometimes with long periods between each visit. The only way that the nurse can legally communicate the care that has been delivered is by writing effective records. Nursing records are usually held by the patient, enabling information to be shared easily between visiting practitioners.

Carl Marx View on Human Freedom Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Carl Marx View on Human Freedom - Essay Example Much more, freedom in education will be narrower if we wouldn't have access to quality education - this will somehow fall into privilege. The same thing goes with our freedom for the quality nourishment. We wouldn't be entirely free or privileged if stock of food will be limited, as we are under the restriction of immediate available means. Several factors also considered to be major hindrances of such freedom. Racial discrimination is one. It is apparent that it suppresses the rights and freedom of many colored-skin people, just because of their skin. There are cases that some housing privileges were not considered to the blacks because of their skin color. Undeniably there are still rights and privileges that some of the colored skin people cannot fully acquired. Faith or spiritual conviction can also limit the freedom of certain individual regarding beliefs and spiritual principles and practices. This also somehow affects the lifestyle of individual inevitably, when one put into application the beliefs and principles. Gender is also another factor that limits the freedom of certain individuals.

Psychology Articles Critique Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Psychology Articles Critique - Essay Example In the 16th century, most of the women confined in asylums were unfortunates who were shut up by their husbands for what was perceived as mad behavior. A century later, those confined were victims of violence, prostitution, or bad luck, and most of them were women on the poor receiving end of a male-dominated patriarchal society. Chesler points out (p. 94) that by the end of the 19th and throughout the 20th centuries, madness became associated with being a woman by both psychiatrists and novelists, painting a skewed reality where the numbers of men confined for madness were equally increasing. What could account for these misguided perceptions is a mistake of masculine logic: just because male psychiatrists and novelists cannot understand women who as medical evidence has now revealed are anatomically and biologically different, does not mean that all women are mad and that all mad people are women. Chesler attempts to correct such monumental mistakes. Third, by mirroring within the walls of the asylum the inherent 'defects' of outside society - the patriarchal nature, the well-defined gender roles, and expected modes of repressed feminine behavior - the cure may have made the 'sickness' worse. Chesler provides details of her arguments by looking t... And fourth, given these mismatches between diagnoses and prescriptions, asylums did not offer asylum and need to be run differently if these are to cure women patients. Chesler provides details of her arguments by looking through the window of three psychopathological symptoms of how the female social role clashed in and with the outside world. Clinical depression (p. 102-104) is associated with women's emotional makeup and their propensity to search for meaning in daily reality and in everything. As scientific findings point out, most symptoms of depression may be the result of biochemical reactions taking place from hormonal changes that wreak havoc on the mind. What this leads to is frightening, because it is possible that several women were characterized as mad in the past and locked up in asylums because they were classified as mad and depressed, when it could be possible that a weekend walk in the park, a good conversation, or maybe even just a few more hours of rest or sleep would have been enough to cure them. Frigidity (p. 105-108) is a reaction to the masculine worldview of women as sex objects whose self-worth is determined by the presence or intensity of orgasmic experience. She reflects the feminist view that by giving women power over their bodies, birth control pills helped them overcome their insecurities by seemingly gaining the upper hand. Although it made casual sex more guilt-free and opened the door to excesses of irresponsibility by both the woman and her partner, sexual liberation may have even enhanced the male view of women as sex objects and piled up another layer of sex-centered insecurity on what already is a social burden. Suicide (p. 108-109) is the end result of

3 paragraphs Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

3 paragraphs - Assignment Example It contributes to motivating employees by sending a clear signal that it is performance and only performance that will be the criteria for employment and appreciation thereby reducing the gap between their performance and potential. It frees people to be creative and to take initiative as there is close co-relation between how an employee feels and the work he does. Further men and women are wired differently and different ethnicities have different strengths. When these are looked as complementary rather the competitive it builds the team, and teams are excellent in driving motivation. Individuals who belong to such a high performance team where performance is the key word feel a sense of belonging and passion for the team and therefore for the organization and its endeavors. Traditionally businesses and business managers have sort homogeneous work forces. While the current trend is to argue that diversity is all good for an organization, research by Trandis, Kurowski, and Gelfand in 1994, and Milliken and Martins in 1996 has suggested that there are both advantages and disadvantages. In the face of this uncertainty when Best Buy’s have decided that there policy will definitely be on a diverse workforce it is essential to drive the message to all levels of management and inculcate a philosophy which does not in anyway allow deviance from it’s stated policy. Visiting the National Civil Rights Museum in Memphis drives this point through. In fact it scores a home run in communicating its policy. Managers with the traditional homogenous mindset will feel that they will have to learn or depart. Employees have been reassured that the company is absolutely serious in it’s policy and will empower whistle blowing when the policy is practiced in the breach. A visit to such an iconic place in the history of the nation will also give all employees and managers a sense of being an essential

Challenges Faced by Trade Unions in Organizing Migrant Workers in UK Essay

Challenges Faced by Trade Unions in Organizing Migrant Workers in UK - Essay Example A good example of how labour unions have shaped the politics of the United Kingdom is by considering the Labour Party. The political party started off as just a trade organization but grew so much to the point that it ended up forming the government for many years. Trade unions are necessary in the United Kingdom because; the help in the selection and recruitment of workers. They do this by ensuring that the process of selection and recruitment of workers is done in an open manner and that people are hired based on their academic qualifications or merits (McGovern, 2007). This ensures that nepotism and corruption does not take place when people are being considered to be hired. Trade unions also help in settling industrial disputes in the United Kingdom in a manner which is rational. Trade unions act as mediators between workers and their employers in case here is any dispute regarding payment, benefits or working conditions. Trade unions represent the workers and allow a sitting fro m which they can negotiate the issues in question with the employers making sure that both the workers and their employers are satisfied by the decision they arrive at. In their functions, trade unions in the United Kingdom are expected to uphold social responsibilities because these unions are considered to be part and parcel of society. Making sure that there is industrial peace is one such social responsibility that is expected of trade unions not only in the United Kingdom but also in other countries (McGovern, 2007). Trade unions should ensure that there is industrial peace by ensuring that workers strikes and demonstration do not occur (Nickell and Salaheen, 2008). They should do this by making sure that all disputes between workers and their employers are settled in a civil manner which will not disrupt the country. In the United Kingdom, trade unions that are specifically meant for workers who are migrants. Such workers unions specifically cater for the needs of workers who are not citizens of the United Kingdom. Other trade unions have also started taking concern of the issues that migrant workers are facing (Mc Govern, 2007). One advantage that the United Kingdom is that it has a huge supply of labour especially from workers who come from outside the United Kingdom. According to a survey done by the by Labour Force Survey (ONS), growth in employment in the United Kingdom (CIPD, 2013). From the year 2002 to 201e number of United Kingdom workers employed remained the same for the period of the ten years. At the same time, the number of migrant workers who were employed during this time increased. This conclusion was arrived at because despite the fact that the number of United Kingdom born workers hired did not steadily increase the overall number of workers hired by 1.7 million workers (CIPD, 2013). In these ten years, the number of migrant workers grew from nine percent to 14 percent of the total workforce signifying that migrant workers play a huge function the United Kingdom's economy (CIPD). However, this workforce from migrants is comprised mostly of people from Europe. This is as a result of immigration laws that have been put in place b the United Kingdom government limiting immigration of the number of non European Union immigrants. This law was introduced in the year 2010, and it was later implemented fully in the year 2011. Employers in the United Kingdom were seriously opposed to this law. They were also supported by trade unions and business organizations because they felt that it would result in negative consequences to the country's economy. One reason why such a

The Role of Information Security Policy Essay Example for Free

The Role of Information Security Policy Essay The framework for an organization’s information security program is composed of policies and their respective standards and procedures. This article will examine the relationship between policies, standards, and procedures and the roles they play in an organization’s information security program. In addition, the roles that of individuals inside and outside of the organization with respect to the creation of policy and standards will be discussed. Finally, how an organization can meet information security need at each level of security and how this relates to the information security policy (ISP) content. Information Security Policy (ISP) Definition Policies form the foundation of everything an organization is and does. Likewise, an ISP is the beginning of a company’s information security program. A policy is a high-level plan on how an organization intends to respond to certain issues. An ISP sets the tone of the organizations information security program and establishes the will and intent of the company in all information security matters. The ISP also defines how the company will regulate its employees. Policies must support an organization’s objectives and promote the organization’s success. Policies must never be illegal and must be defensible in a court of law. Policies must be supported and administered fairly and consistently throughout the organization (Whitman Mattford, 2010). The following paragraphs list some tips for developing and implementing an ISP. A Clear Purpose It is essential that an ISP have a clearly defined purpose. Specific objective should guide the creation of the ISP and the purpose should articulate exactly what the policy is to accomplish (McConnell, 2002).  McConnell (2002) further notes that, â€Å"If you cannot explain why the policy exists, you cannot expect your employees to understand it or follow it† (p. 2). Employee Input In developing policies, it is a good idea to gain the input of the employees to which the policy will apply. Ideally, there should be at least one representative from each department. Allowing various employees give input to the policy, will help to ensure that nothing is overlooked and that the policy is easily understood (McConnell, 2002). Security Awareness and Training Program In addition to gaining the employee’s acknowledgement of the ISP at their orientation, the ISP should be part of the security awareness and training program. Ongoing awareness training can focus on various security policies (McConnell, 2002). It is important to keep the awareness of information security matters fresh in the minds of the employees to avoid complacent behaviors that may lead to serious violations. Enforcement Enforcement is critical to the success of any policy; policies that are not enforced are soon ignored. McConnell (2002) notes, â€Å"A policy that you are unable or unwilling to enforce is useless† (p. 2). If a policy is unenforceable, it should be removed or revised to the point where it is enforceable. Not only must a policy be enforceable, it must be enforced from the top down. When managers set the example, the rest of the staff are more likely to follow (McConnell, 2002). Standards While policy sets the overall plan or intent of the organization in regards to information security, standards define the specific elements required to comply with policy. For example, an acceptable usage policy may prohibit employees from visiting inappropriate websites; the standard defines what websites are considered inappropriate (Whitman Mattford, 2010). Standards may be developed in house, but the common preferred way is to utilize already established industry standards that can then be tailored to the  organization’s specific needs. Procedures Procedures are the step-by-step actions necessary to comply with the policy. Procedures are driven by standards that are governed by policy (Whitman Mattford, 2010). Most policy violations may be traced back to either a willful or negligent failure to follow procedures. Roles Senior Management Senior management initiates the need for policy creation; it is their intent and purpose that the policy is created to communicate. Senior management is the final authority and gives the final approval for the policy. Information Security Officer (ISO) The ISO is essentially the policies champion overseeing all aspects of the ISP and the agent reporting to senior management. The ISO creates a governance committee that works together to develop and update policy. The ISO oversees organizational compliance with security policies (California Office of Information Security and Privacy Protection, 2008). IT Staff The information technology (IT) staff is responsible for installing and maintaining the technical controls to ensure users are compliant with the security policies. For example, the IT staff may install software that blocks access to prohibited websites. The IT staff also conducts monitoring of employee activity on the company network. Managers Mangers, as already stated, must lead by example. When managers do not follow and enforce policies, it communicates to the employees that policies are not important and that following them is optional. A body will always follow its head; likewise a department will always follow the example of its managers. End Users The average end user is perhaps the greatest security asset and the greatest security threat; clear security policies and proper security awareness training are the deciding factors. People should be made aware of common  security threats such as social engineering attacks and the importance of safeguarding their password information. They should be trained to understand exactly what the organization expects form them in regards to information security (Whitman Mattford, 2010). External Agents There may be times when outside people may need to have access to an organizations network such vendors, consultants, and temporary employees. Such people should be required to sign an acknowledgement form agreeing to abide by all security policies, standards, and procedures. Security Levels The Bulls-eye Model The bulls-eye model is a way of tailoring the ISP to the needs of the organization at various security levels. The four levels of the bulls-eye are: policies, networks, systems, and applications (Whitman Mattford, 2010). Whitman and Mattford (2010) state, â€Å"In this model, issues are addressed by moving from the general to the specific, always starting with policy† (p. 120). Policy AN information security policy, as already discussed, sets the foundation for an organization’s information security program (Ungerman, 2005). While all policies are high-level, there are different levels that a policy may address. The enterprise information security policy (EISP) is the overall policy that encompasses all other information security policies within the organization. Issue specific security policies (ISSP) target specific issues and contain more low-level elements than the EISP. An example of an ISSP is an acceptable use policy (SUP). Finally, there are system specific security policies (SysSP). A SysSP is so low-levelthat it may appear more like a procedure than a policy. A SysSP through either managerial guidance or technical specifications defines system-specific controls needed to conform to an ISSP. An example of an SysSP would be the implementation of website filtering software to enforce the company’s AUP (Whitman Mattford, 2010). Network Network-level security is about securing the network and as such is heavily  focused on controlling access through user authentication. EISP may define who may access the network in addition to how and why. An ISSP may then specify what type of authentication and access control models may be used. SysSPs can then proscribe technical specifications, such as software requiring a periodic password change, to facilitate compliance with the ISSP (Whitman Mattford, 2010). System System-level security is concerned with securing the actual system components of the network such as the computers, printers, and servers. Examples of ISSPs at the system level are AUP, password policies, and policies prohibiting the installation of unapproved hardware and software by end users (Whitman Mattford, 2010). Application Application-level security deals with any type of application form out-of –the-box software like MS Office to enterprise resource planners (ERP) like SAP. Policy considerations here would be controlling user access and application update policy. Policy controls who has access to which applications and to which features (Whitman Mattford, 2010). Conclusion References California Office of Information Security and Privacy Protection. (2008, April). Guide for the Role and Responsibilities of an Information Security Officer Within State Government. Retrieved from http://www.cio.ca.gov/ois/government/documents/pdf/iso_roles_respon_guide.pdf McConnell, K. D. (2002). How to Develop Good Security Policies and Tips on Assessment and Enforcement. Retrieved from http://www.giac.org/paper/gsec/1811/develop-good-security-policies-tips-assessment-enforcement/102142 Ungerman, M. (2005). Creating and Enforcing an Effective Information Security Policy. Retrieved from http://www.isaca.org/Journal/Past-Issues/2005/Volume-6/Documents/jopdf-0506-creating-enforcing.pdf Whitman, M., Mattford, H. (2010). Management of Information Security (3rd ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning. Retrived from The University of Phoenix eBook Collection database.

Consumers Perception Towards Online Shopping In Singapore Marketing Essay

Consumers Perception Towards Online Shopping In Singapore Marketing Essay During the few past years, the Internet has grown to new levels not even envisioned. The Internet changes the way people live, work and purchase. Demangeot Broderick (2007) state that Internet provides great advantages for the consumers, such as variety of products, services and prices from different suppliers Using Internet facilities, commercial organisations can develop new markets; and improve the competitiveness of the company (Eastlick et al., 2006). However, the Internet may also create threats to some organizations. The number of Internet users is increasing year by year. Figure 1 shows the growth of Internet users globally. The fast growth of e-shopping and the increasing number of e-retailers has created an extremely competitive market place(George, 2004). Competing issues create a need for managers to understand factors which influence people using Internet as a new purchasing media (Fraser et al., 2005). It is becomes essential for the companies to understand benefits and risks of online shopping in order to underline the benefits and minimize risks. Figure 1 Growth of Internet Users in the World Source: http://www.internetworldstats.com/emarketing.htm 1.2. Background of the Country Singapore is an industrial country, which has a highly developed market- based economy. Total Singapore population is 4,987,600 (Singstat, June 2009) from which 72.4 per cent has an access to Internet at home (Singapore Internet Statistics, 2010). Figure 2 illustrates the Internet users growth in Singapore, which is 180.8per cent for the nine years period from 2000. Figure 2 Internet Usage http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm#asia Based on research, conducted by IPSOS in 2007 (Figure 3), more than 60% of online users in Singapore use online shopping, which gives high potential for online trade market. Figure 3 Online shopping statistics Source: http://www.insightbureau.com/insight_reports/mc_insights/2008_Q3_OnlineShopAP.pdf 1.3 Objectives, research questions and research hypotheses This study is intended to understand the buying process and behaviour of online consumers. The basic objectives of the study are: To determine consumer behaviour in online environment To identify the main influencers in online buying process To identify peoples attitude towards benefits and risks of online shopping Based on objectives identified, the following questions are raised: What are the main factors that influence consumer purchasing decision online? Is there any differences between online and offline consumer? What consumer segments are more likely to shop online? Is there any connection between identified factors and consumer segment groups? Based on objectives and questions above, conceptualizing framework for this research has been developed. The important variables are clearly showed through logical reasoning in the framework. Based on this framework, the null and alternative hypotheses are developed as the followings: There is a difference as well as no difference in perception on benefits of Internet purchasing between online and offline consumers There is a difference as well as no difference in perceived risks towards Internet purchasing between online and offline consumers 1.4. Scope With the fast growth of Internet commerce it becomes very important for companies to study consumer behaviour (Jobber, 2001). If the influencing factors in the online buying and selling process can be identified, than it can be meaningful for the online companies to give much emphasis on these factors. The majority of companies want to increase the overall volume of the business because this can lead to significant reductions in costs and competitive advantages (Kotler, 2003). This research will pay attention to consumer behaviour in the online environment, providing theoretical information about online purchasing behaviour of the consumers. Additionally, the present study is an attempt to get insight into peoples perceptions towards online shopping in Singapore. This study will specify on the perception of Internet users towards benefits and risks associated with online shopping and how company can avoid customers concerns about online shopping. Chapter Two: Literature review 2.1 Introduction Currently, e-commerce is getting huge attention from a range of organisation and customers due to the fact of fast Internet development (Lee Lin, 2005). Online shopping, as a part of E-commerce, is becoming a tendency in Singapore (Rotem-Mindali et al., 2006). Online shopping has both advantages and disadvantages. Purchasing behaviour is determined by consumers view of benefits and risks of online shopping. This literature review intends to review of all the relevant factors. Firstly, the definition of e-commerce and its growth will be defined. Secondly, theories regarding consumer perception and behaviour will be reviewed. Finally, the main benefits and risks will be summarized. 2.2. Definition of E-commerce There are different definitions of what is e-commerce. E-commerce is a very broad term used to describe process where electronic connections make resources exchange be possible (Vrechopoulos et al., 2001). In context of the Internet, E-commerce is used as a general term. The definitions of e-commerce are focused on buying and selling using the Internet. According to Mark van Ketel and Tim D. Nelson (2009) electronic commerce (e-commerce), a subset of e-business, includes selling goods and services, as well as purchasing and exchanging over the Internet. Torkzadeh and Dhillion (2002) describe e-commerce as a purchase and sale over the Internet. This includes the process of finding a product, ordering and receiving as well as costs and benefits of a product or service. Generally, E-commerce can be broken into two main categories: Business to business (B2B) is where business makes online transactions with other businesses (Turban et al., 2003) Business to consumer (B2C) is where online transactions are made between a business and an individual consumer (Wareham, 2000). 2.2.1 The importance of E-commerce According to Carla et al. (2006) Internet is a powerful instrument to buy, sell and distribute goods and services worldwide in a fast growing supply chain. Internet provides potential market that has no or little restrictions, such as geography or time (Blackwell, 2000). E-commerce provides enormous opportunities for growth and development. Through the Internet people can communicate with each other over vast distances. It allows commercially moving business and people to a market in which everything that is for sale is advertised and everything that is wanted for purchase is requested somewhere (Kanttila, 2005). Over the years E-commerce changing the way business used to work. According to Wareham, E (2000) Expedia sells more than $ 14 million worth of hotels and airline reservations a day from its web-site Federal Express in Singapore began to save $10,000 a day by creating customer service department online (Kotler, 2003). The Internet provides businesses with the opportunity to sell their products to millions of people, 24 hours a day (Bellman, 2006). Buyers and sellers can thus contact each other with no or little cost. The development of e-commerce is often claimed to be reshaping almost all industries (Pawlyna, 1999). It influences the operation of organisations and peoples activities greatly and brings fundamental changes to the way that business is conducted. E-commerce can enhance organisations performance by tangible and significant operational efficiency (Mutz, 2005). 2.2.2 The growth of E-commerce and online shopping The B2C and Internet usage rates are making stable progress and rising constantly. Electronic retailing, the B2C segment of e-commerce, is set to grow exponentially in the next few years (Siyal et al., 2006). Total online retail revenue is increasing year after year and expecting to increase in the nearest future (Shu et al., 2006). The increase of B2C e-commerce cannot help but to impact peoples attitude to buy goods. Currently, one in ten Singapore adults can be categorized as frequent online purchasers (Shun, 2006). Presently around 72.4 per cent of Singapore households are web-connected (Singapore Internet Statistics 2010), also this position is expected to grow over the next decades (Singstat, 2009) In the early stage of growth, e-retailing, the B2C segment of e-commerce is set to grow exponentially in the next few years (Tan, 2007). However, online shopping still remains as yet a minority pursuit with purchases concentrated in a comparatively narrow range of categories such as clothing and software, music and travelling (Shun, 2006). 2.3. Segmentation of Online consumers Vrechopoulos et al. (2001) segmented e-shoppers based on demographic, behavioural and attitudinal characteristics. Figure 4 illustrates classification of different segments of online shopping. Brown et al. (2003) classify e-shoppers according to purchasing motivations for shopping, which illustrated in Figure 5. Figure 4 Vrechopoulos, Siomkos and Doudikiss Segmentation of e-shoppers Characteristic On-off shoppers Online shoppers Interested in online shopping Social and demographic variables Gender Mainly men Men and women Age 25-44 18-44 Education University and postgraduate studies University studies Level of income Above average Average or above Material status Single Married Job Scientists, professionals, working in the private sector Scientist, public and private sector employees Attitudinal variables Home shopping motivations Time saving, opening hours Time saving, opening hours, exclusivity Online shopping motivations Fast delivery, low prices, range of products and opening times Home delivery, low prices, range of products and opening times Preferred payment method Cash on delivery, credit cards Cash on delivery Willingness to pay more than through traditional channels No No Willingness to pay delivery costs Yes Yes Source: Adopted by an author from Vrechopoulos, A., Siomkos, G. Doudikis, G. (2001) Figure 5 Segmentation of online consumers according to purchase motivations Type of shopper Purchase motivations Personalised shopper Personal relationship with the seller. Service adapts to shoppers needs Recreational shopper Enjoys the act of shopping Economic shopper Achieve the nest quality-price relationship for the purchase Involved shopper Enjoys shopping and values personal relations Convenience shopper Values time and effort. Enjoy reduced prices Local shopper Loyal to a brand or shop in their local area Apathetic shopper Rejects the act of shopping. Values the convenience of Internet Source: adopted by an author from Brown, M., Pope, N., Voges, K., (2003) 2.4 Consumers behaviour theories 2.4.1 Consumers perception and consumer behaviour Pawlyna (1999) identified perception as an initiator of behaviour. Additionally, perception can be considered as a process of information extraction. Even in the same reality, different people tend to perceive differently. Its vital to understand, that peoples perceptions are more important than the reality in marketing (Kotler, 2000). The factors, which influence consumers purchasing behaviour online can be identified by understanding customer behaviour. In most studies perception identified as input, while behaviour as output, and treated as two separate phenomena. Rotem-Mindali (2006) suggested that perception and behaviour are two sides of the same phenomenon and are closely related to each other. Current study considered perception and behaviour as one integral part in order to understand customer perception and reasons which affect it. 2.4.2 Consumer decision process There are several models (see Appendix 1), which describes customer purchasing behaviour, though they all have similar attributes that should be considered as fundamental stages upon which the consumers behaviour is developed. Figure 6illustratesmain steps involved in consumer decision process. Figure 6 Consumer decision process model Source: Adopted by an author fromhttp://tutor2u.net/business/marketing/buying_decision_process.asp Predispositions (Before Purchase): This stage includes past experiences, customer own personality and self-concept, attitudes and opinions in general, as well as on specific products. Product Need: Buyuko et al. (2004) stated that buyer recognises a need which can be satisfied by a product or service, as a result of either cognitive activity or some environmental stimulus. It can be simplified that the need is often caused by internal or external stimuli. Information Search: The search may arise on an internal and external basis (Goh, 1999). According to Donald (1974) this stage includes all searches of the internal and external environments for the alternative solutions as well as for information which can help in evaluating of those alternatives. The search for the information usually includes previous experiences and should be relevant to the present purchase situation. Evaluation of Alternatives: This stage involves comparison of alternatives from physical and cognitive activities. Consumers compare various brands by taking in consideration several attributes (Kotler, 2000). Attributes used for the evaluation of alternatives by consumers are also known as choice criteria. Figure 7shows a summary of these choice criteria. Additionally, differentiation and number of alternatives, time pressure as well as level of involvement will reflect the extent of problem solving. As shown in Figure 8the extent to which customer involved in decision making process influence each stage of customer decision making process. Figure7Choice criteria used for the evaluation of alternatives by consumers Source: Adopted by an author from Bellman, S., Johnson, E. J., Lohse, G. L., Mandel, N. (2006).   Figure 8 Purchase Involvement and Stages of consumer decision making process Source: http://www.slideshare.net/roymogg/marketing-focus-on-the-customer-presentation Purchase Activity: This stage consist of customer involvement in making an actual financial decision as well as direct physical activities involved in decision making process about making purchase or not. Also this stage includes the actual transaction. However, customer decision can be postponed, modified, or avoided due to influence of perceived risk involved in purchase decision (Kotler,2000). Therefore, it is essential for marketers to recognize and understand factors that might provoke perceived risk and find out solutions to minimize that (Bellman et al., 2006). Post Purchase Behaviour: According to Kotler (2000) the current stage primarily concerned with product or service purchased by the customer. This level requires customers experience of satisfaction or dissatisfaction about purchased product or service, which further will influence subsequent behaviour of consumer. According to Fox all et al (1998) satisfaction or dissatisfaction created by product or service will make major impact on future purchase decisions. Predispositions (After Purchase and Use): After the process of purchasing the buyer (or non- buyer) should be left with cognitive content (Gunasekaran et al., 2004), which can be differ from that which present at the early stages. Consumers attitude, information and experience may be changed due to factors of time and events (Hawkins, 1989). All of the above can influence the future purchase decision of the same type. 2.4.3. Consumer behaviour in Online Environment When consumers shop online, they perform a similar sequence of tasks to offline shoppers (Mowen et al., 2003). Besides, online environment provides more information regarding each alternatives, also online environment is more flexible and time saving. Internet has significant impact on each stage of traditional decision making process. Final customer decision depends on several factors, which are illustrated in Figure 9. Figure 9 Main factors that influence customer purchasing decision Source: Adopted by an author from Buyuko Zumi; Kan, Gulcin (2004) Figure 9 presented factors, which lead to the decision process, which is described below. Problem recognition: Feeling the need or recognize the problem is the starting point. The Internet can generate the need or problem by itself and also can encourage customers to start the information search process (Breitenbach and van Doren, 1998). Information Search: Internet is one of the powerful sources of information, it has great advantages to store and process the information (Buyuko Zumi, 2004), and due to the above Internet has a deep impact on the Information Search stage. According to Wareham (2000) Internet provides wide access to information base for the consumers. Comparing to the traditional environment Web is less costly and require less time for information search (Turban  et al., 2002). One of the important differences between online and offline environment is the costs for the characteristics and attributes for which information can be obtained, are usually lower in online atmosphere (Kanttila, 2005). Still, the Internet has far less impact for the products that are perceived as low risk and that are bought frequently (Mutz, 2005). Additionally, the Internet is much less effective for value expressive products than for functional products, which attributes can be easily compared online (Rayport et al., 2003). Product Evaluation: This stage requires customers to make final value judgment through evaluating different information. The main benefit of online shops is their ability to store large amount of content at a relatively low cost (Rotem-Mindali et al., 2006). Thus, this can be turned to advantage when customers evaluating the product. On another hand, Internet provides lack of tangibility, which leads to difficulties in evaluating products. Purchase Activity: Current stage involves issues regarding transactions, which include the following steps: Agree contractually on purchase Pay for the purchase Wait for the delivery Receive physical delivery This stage can be influenced by different consumer-related factors, such as price, trustworthiness, availability or diversity of choices. According to Jobber (2001) this stage is also influenced by customer involvement, which is shown in Figure 6. Thus, customer will carry out very extensive evaluation when the purchase is very involving. On the contrary, purchases with low involvement will lead to simple evaluation and quick decision making (Schiffman, 2004). Post Purchase Activities: This stage is concerned with the satisfaction or dissatisfaction after purchase is made (Solomon et al., 2002). Internet provides good potential for customer satisfaction, as well as help to retain them. Web site can provide free customer support services, which will encourage repeat visits. Additionally, value-added services or feedback can be provided to the customers in order to retain existing customers and attract new (Siyal et al., 2006). 2.5. Benefits of the online shopping As discussed previously, there are a lot of factors that affect consumers purchasing process. Those factors reflect both, advantages as well as disadvantages of Internet as a shopping medium. The advantages or benefits of online shopping considered by customers described as the followings. 2.5.1 Convenience The customers expect online shopping to be easier and more convenient than as compare to traditional (Shun, 2006). Convenience is appearing very obvious at the stage of information search. According to Kotler (2003) The Internet is an almost perfect market due to the fact that information provided immediately and buyers can make a comparison of offers globally. As a result, consumers require minimal effort and time in order to compare and contrast competitive products. 2.5.2. Time saving According to Rayport et al. (2003) those who buy clothing on Web most often appreciate time saving. The process of locating merchants, finding items and procure offerings is easier in online environment (Maruca, 1999), which means online shopping can economize on time. Consumers do not require leaving their houses and spent time for travelling in order to make merchandise. Additionally, online environment allows browsing for needed items by size, category or price. Browsing and time benefits of online shopping represent the positive perception of e-satisfaction (Lichtenthal, 2004). 2.5.3. Product related benefits Comparing with a conventional retailer, e-retailer is able to offer a more wider range of products, because e-retailer do not have physical restrictions in terms of the amount and cost of floor space which is needed to display goods (Kanttila, 2005). Furthermore, it is less costly and easier for e-retailer to form alliances with other supplier, which brings more extensive inventories. 2.5.4. Lower price Internet enhances customer knowledge about pricing. In online environment customers are able to visit sites of competitors and compare the prices; moreover intermediaries provide price comparisons, which make process of evaluation more convenient and time saving (Gunasekaran et al., 2004). This transparency of price increases the competition between e-retailers and drives the price down. Furthermore the cost for performing online business is lower than for offline (e.g. minimal staffing cost, no retail space costs), this also lead to lower prices (Brown et al., 2003). However, some researches show those consumers are ready to pay for the online products same as for offline in exchange for the convenience (Rayport et al., 2003). 2.6. Perceived risks of online shopping Perceived risk can be defined as the uncertainty which arise when customer cannot predict the consequences of purchase decision (Farley et al., 1973). The level of risk can vary depending on individuals, personality, situation and product. However, perceived risk can be reduced to some acceptable level in any purchase situation. 2.6.1. Risk of privacy Privacy may mean diverse things to different people. Generally privacy refers to a moral right of individuals to avoid interruption interruptions into their personal life and affairs by third parties (Rotem-Mindali et al., 2006). Privacy is the main factor which stops many consumers from online shopping. Most of the time individuals get afraid that their private information can be sold, used, shared or discovered in an incorrect manner. According to Kanttila (2005)  fears and concerns of online purchasing reduce online purchasing decisions. 2.6.2. Security risk Security risks are often related to privacy issues. Security, especially online payment security is one of the main concerns for the consumers in e-shopping (Shun, 2006). Even the Internet and advanced technology improving fast, there are still high proportion of online users who are very cautious about making online purchase due to the concerns over credit and debit card security. Majority of customers have concerns whether the company is legal and private information will be not distributed to third parties, due to high percentage of hackers operating online (Siyal et al., 2006). 2.6.3. Lack of inspection before purchase Absence of direct sensory cues is another perceived risk, which is often mentioned both by marketers and customers. According to Schiffman Kanuk (2004 the fact that consumers are unable to touch products offered online is considered as significant drawback. This fact leads to more uncertainties regarding online shopping, because consumers have doubts about quality of the purchased product. This is also the reason why a lot of products which require high involvement are seldom purchased online (Rayport et al., 2003). 2.6.4. Risk of delivery Another drawback of online purchase is time between the purchase was made and time it received. When purchasing online, consumers cannot obtain the purchased product directly after transaction (Mutz, 2005). After the transaction was made the product will reach customer via home/office delivery sometime later. Therefore the reliability of delivery is another concerning issue. Additional problem which involved in delivery process is speed. One more issue to consider about home delivery is the presence of customer at home (Lichtenthal, 2004). Sometimes time of the delivery can be uncertain, and such situation can also lead to uncertainty. 2.6.5. Risk of returning Product returns are essential for the customers convenience and satisfaction. Majority of researches shows that the rate of online returns are low, however it is only due to the fact that customers find the process of returning is too complex (Constantinides, 2004). Such disgruntled customers are unlikely to continue online shopping in future (Case, 2002). Another issue in returning goods is that money usually are paid through credit or debit card, and here arise another problem of returning money back on the customer account, which depend not on e-company, but on the bank through which purchase was done. 2.7. Summary It is unarguable that the Internet has become an important part of peoples lives, enabling the fast growth of e-commerce. Currently, e-commerce is making improvements in customers satisfaction and tries to involve more people in online business environment (Chen Dubinsky, 2003). Consumer perception is the creator of customer performance, at the same time customer actions are the output of consumer perception (Citrin et al., 2000). It is useful to understand factors which influence buyers perception and purchasing behaviour. The adaptation of Internet creates a great impact on purchasing behaviour by providing more information, facilitating evaluation and decision making, and after-sales feedback. Additionally, online shopping includes different benefits and risks related to factors influencing consumer purchasing behaviour. 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